[1]Smith, K. et al. (1999). How much global ill health is attributable to environmental factors? Epidemiology 10 (5): 573-84.
[2] Environmental Defense. (2004). Air in Your City. Retrieved December 15, 2004 from http://www.environmentaldefense.org/dangerousdays.cfm?subnav=aiyc_50cities.
[3] Brookings Institution Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy. (2003). Back to Prosperity: A Competitive Agenda for Renewing Pennsylvania.
[4] World Health Organization (1948). See http://www.who.int/en/.
[5] World Health Organization (1993). Draft definition developed at a WHO consultation in Sofia, Bulgaria.
[6] See http://wiki.org.
[7] Ali, R., Dorsey, E. and Goodman, R. (2004). A Community-Based Approach to Environmental Health in the Pittsburgh Region (unpublished draft).
[8] Farber, S., & Arugeta, J. (2001). State of the Environment in Allegheny County: Land, Water, and Air. Pittsburgh: Environmental Decision Support Program and University Center for Social and Urban Research, University of Pittsburgh.
[9] Allegheny County Health Department Newsletter for Building Environmental Capacity for Allegheny County. (2002).): Allegheny County Health Department.
[10] Sustainable Pittsburgh. (2005). Southwestern Pennsylvania Regional Indicators Report 2004. Retrieved March 1, 2005, from http://www.sustainablepittsburgh.org.
[11] Such an endeavor may be well suited for a follow-up project.
[12] PA Consortium for Interdisciplinary Environmental Policy. (2000). PCIEP Home Page. Retrieved February 1, 2005, from http://www.paconsortium.state.pa.us/default.htm.
[13] PA Consortium for Interdisciplinary Environmental Policy. (2005). Roadmap Project Description (February 4, 2005 draft):PA Consortium for Interdisciplinary Environmental Policy.
[14] H.J. Heinz III Center for Science Economics & the Environment. (2005). 2007 Report Development: Plans, Projects, and Working Groups:--Data Gaps Survey. Retrieved February 1, 2005, from http://www.heinzctr.org/ecosystems/index.htm.
[15] Allegheny County Health Department (2004). Newsletter for Building Environmental Capacity for Allegheny County 2004. Retrieved December, 2004 from http://www.achd.net.
[16] Allegheny County Health Department (2004). Newsletter for Building Environmental Capacity for Allegheny County 2004. Retrieved December, 2004 from http://www.achd.net.
[17] Allegheny County Health Department (2003). Newsletter for Building Environmental Capacity for Allegheny County. Retrieved August, 2004 from http://www.achd.net
[18] The full reference for the article included in the above newsletter is as follows: Glad, J.M., Kotchian, S.B, & Barron, G.M. (2004). Developing a local comprehensive environment and health tracking system: Using what we know to improve health and the environment. Journal of Environmental Health, 66 (10): 9-14.
[19] Sustainable Pittsburgh. (2005). Southwestern Pennsylvania Regional Indicators Report 2004. Retrieved March 1, 2005, from http://www.sustainablepittsburgh.org.
[20] The “Compass of Sustainability” was based upon “Daly’s Pyramid,” a model for thinking about the relationships between these four areas, as described at http://203.147.150.6/decisions.cfm.
[21] Wheitner, D. (2005). Electronic correspondence from J. G. Craig.
[22] Wheitner, D. (2005). Electronic correspondence from M. Curran Widdows, Maya Design. Thanks to Maryl Curran Widdows for authoring the bulk of this description. For additional information on this project, see http://www.maya.com/infocommons/.
[23] Wheitner, D. (2005). Interview with R. Stumpp, Allegheny County Department of Human Services.
[24] Allegheny County Department of Human Services and 3 Rivers Connect (2005). Presentation of the HS.net system.
[25] OLAP: online analytical processing, a procedure that improves the speed of complex database queries. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OLAP for more information.
[26] Scotch, M., & Parmanto, B. (2004). SOVAT: Spatial OLAP Visualization and Analysis Tool. Paper presented at the 38th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences-2005. Wheitner, D. (2004). Interviews with M. Scotch and B. Parmanto. For more information, contact Matthew Scotch at mscotch@cbmi.pitt.edu.
[27] University of Pittsburgh University Center for Social and Urban Research. (2004). Project 'Info-Pitt' Homepage. Retrieved February 17, 2005, from http://infopitt.ucsur.pitt.edu/.
[28] Wheitner, D. (2005). Electronic correspondence and interviews with G. Ervin, 10,000 Friends of Pennsylvania, and S. Hwang, University of Pittsburgh Center for Social and Urban Research. For more information, contact Grant Ervin, 10,000 Friends of Pennsylvania, gervin@10000friends.org.
[29] Currently participating or invited organizations include 3 Rivers Connect, Allegheny County, the Carnegie Mellon University Center for Economic Development, the City of Pittsburgh Department of City Planning Community Technical Assistance Center (CTAC), MAYA Design, and the University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health.
[30] U.S. Centers for Disease Control. (2002). CDC's Environmental Public Health Tracking Grantees: Pennsylvania. Retrieved February 18, 2005, from http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/tracking/EPHTracking/contacts/pa.htm.
[31] Ibid.
[32] D. Wheitner (2005). Interview with D. Marchetto, EPHT Program Manager, Pennsylvania Department of Health.
[33] National Neighborhood Indicators Partnership. (2005). National Neighborhood Indicators Partnership Homepage. Retrieved 2/1/05, 2005, from http://urban.org/nnip/.
[34] U.S. Centers for Disease Control. (2004). Linking Hazards, Exposures and Health Effects: Closing America's Environmental Public Health Information Gap. Retrieved February 18, 2005, from http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/tracking/.
[35] National Neighborhood Indicators Partnership. (2005). Listserv Communication.
[40] See MAYA Design website: http://www.maya.com/web/index.mtml.
[41] Myers N. (1992). The Primary Source: Tropical Forests and Our Future. New York: W. W. Norton.
[42] Myers N. (1993). Tropical forests: the main deforestation fronts. Environmental Conservation 20: 9-16.
[43] Pimm SL, Brooks T. (2000a). The sixth extinction: How large, where, and when? In: Raven PH, editor. Nature and human society. Washington: National Academy of Sciences Press p. 46-62.
Pimm SL, Raven R. (2000b). Extinction by numbers. Nature 403, p. 843-4.
[44] Bentz GD. (1990). Medicine's stake in preserving the tropical rain forest. South Med J. May; 83(5):491-492.
Chivian E. Global environmental degradation and species loss: implications for human health. In: Grifo F, Rosenthal J, editors. Biodiversity and human health. Washington: Island Press. p. 7-38, 1997.
Grifo R, Newman D, Fairfield AS, Bhattacharya B, Grupenhoff JT. The origins of prescription drugs. In Grifo F, Rosenthal J, editors. Biodiversity and human health. Washington: Island Press; 1997.
[45] Daily GC, editor. Nature's services: societal dependence on natural ecosystems. Washington: Island Press, 1997.
Hawken, P. et al, Natural Capitalism, Little, Brown, New York, 1999.
[46] Shukovsky, Paul. “Orangutan habitat is being destroyed by export-driven logging.” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, July 5, 2003
[48] See the CWAR website at http://www2.fpl.fs.fed.us/Menu.ssi.
[49] Environmental Protection Agency (2004). AirData: About the National Emission Inventory Database. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.epa.gov/air/data/neidb.html. Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (year unknown). Toxic Pollutant Source Categories. Retrieved October, 2004 from http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/airwaste/aq/toxics/sources.htm.
[50] Official definitions may also be found in the Clean Air Amendments, Title 1, Part A, Section 112 at http://www.epa.gov/air/caa/title1.html.
[51] From the National Air Toxics Assessment (NATA), described at http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/nata/.
[52] The threshold amounts differ for Criteria Pollutants.
[53] According to the EPA’s National Toxics Inventory as cited by Scorecard.org, non-point (i.e., mobile and area) sources may account for as much as 90% of all hazardous air pollutants Environmental Defense. (2004). Which Toxic Chemicals Are Covered by TRI? Retrieved November 1, 2004, from http://www.scorecard.org/general/tri/tri_chem.html.
[54] A complete list of the TRI chemicals as of 2001 can be found at Environmental Protection Agency--Office of Environmental Information. (2001). The Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act: Section 313 Release and Other Waste Management Reporting Requirements. Retrieved December 1, 2004, from http://www.epa.gov/triinter/guide_docs/2001/brochure2000.pdf.
[55] The Clean Air Act does not mandate regulation of Urban HAPs or PBTs in and of themselves—but chemicals within those categories are regulated through their definitions as HAPs or Criteria Pollutants.
[56]See http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/airwaste/aq/toxics/toxics.htm, http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/188polls.html.
[58] Due to inclusion of diesel particulate matter, a type of Criteria Pollutant (particulate matter) in Urban HAPS, the two categories are not entirely mutually exclusive.
[59] See http://www.epa.gov/air/urbanair/6poll.html and http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/sixpoll.html for more information on principal/criteria air pollutants.
[60] For example, VOCs and NOx react in the presence of sunlight to form ozone. See http://www.epa.gov/air/data/info.html for more detail.
[62] This includes the following industries: metal mining, coal mining, electric utilities, chemical wholesalers, petroleum bulk terminals, RCRA (Resource Conservation Recovery Act)/solvent recovery, food, tobacco, textiles, apparel, lumber, furniture, paper printing, chemicals, petroleum, plastics, leather, stone/clay/glass, primary metals, fabricated metals, machinery, electrical equipment, transportation equipment, measure/photo, and miscellaneous. See the following:
Environmental Protection Agency. (2004). EPA TRI (Toxic Release Inventory) Explorer. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/triexplorer.
Environmental Protection Agency. (2002). The Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) and Factors to Consider When Using TRI Data. Retrieved January 10, 2005 from http://www.epa.gov/tri/2002_tri_brochure.pdf.
[63] Dolinoy, D. C., & Miranda, M. L. (2004). GIS Modeling of Air Toxics Releases from TRI-Reporting and Non-TRI-Reporting Facilities: Impacts for Environmental Justice. Environmental Health Perspectives, 112(17), 1717-1724.
Environmental Protection Agency. (2004). EPA TRI (Toxic Release Inventory) Explorer. Retrieved rom http://www.epa.gov/triexplorer.
Environmental Protection Agency. (2002). The Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) and Factors to Consider When Using TRI Data. Retrieved January 10, 2005 from http://www.epa.gov/tri/2002_tri_brochure.pdf.
[64] Wheitner, D. (2004). Interview with J. Graham, Allegheny County Health Department. For extensive detail on the data sites are required to submit within Allegheny County, see Allegheny County Health Department (2004). Instructions for Online Emissions Inventory Submissions, retrieved 3/05 from http://www.achd.net/airqual/pubs/pdf/EmissionsInventoryInstructions.pdf.
[65] Includes both releases through a confined channel (point source or stack emissions); and those not released through a confined channel, e.g., through a ventilation system or spill (fugitive air emissions).
[66] Environmental Protection Agency--Office of Environmental Information. (2001). The Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act: Section 313 Release and Other Waste Management Reporting Requirements. Retrieved December 1, 2004, from http://www.epa.gov/triinter/guide_docs/2001/brochure2000.pdf.
Environmental Protection Agency. (2002). The Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) and Factors to Consider When Using TRI Data. Retrieved January 10, 2005, from http://www.epa.gov/tri/2002_tri_brochure.pdf.
Environmental Protection Agency. (2004). Toxics Release Inventory Query Form. Retrieved January 10, 2005, from http://www.epa.gov/enviro/html/tris/tris_query.html.
[67] Reporting requirements are outlined in detail in Environmental Protection Agency--Office of Environmental Information. (2001). The Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act: Section 313 Release and Other Waste Management Reporting Requirements. Retrieved December 1, 2004, from http://www.epa.gov/triinter/guide_docs/2001/brochure2000.pdf.
[68] The calendar year during which the chemical was created, used, managed or released—not the same as when it was actually reported.
[69] As defined by the Southwestern Pennsylvania Commission (see Appendix B: Counties in Definitions of “Region”).
[70] Excludes facilities submitting Form A, which is submitted “when they have released 500 lbs or less of a TRI chemical into the environment and have manufactured, processed or otherwise used one million lbs or less of the chemical in the reporting year” (http://www.epa.gov/tri-efdr/#formR).
[72] For example, a single point source in Armstrong County released more than 16,000,000 lbs. of hydrochloric acid, accounting for roughly 80% of that county’s total TRI emissions. Within Allegheny County, the Cheswick Power Station accounts for nearly half of the county’s total point source air emissions. (Sources: www.epa.gov, http://www.achd.net/airqual/pubs/pdf/2003EIrpt.pdf.)
[74] Additional information on strengths and weaknesses of the TRI can be found at http://www.scorecard.org/general/tri/tri_gen.html, http://www.epa.gov/triexplorer/assumptions.htm,
http://www.epa.gov/tri-efdr/#what, and from http://www.epa.gov/tri/2002_tri_brochure.pdf
[75] See Right-to-Know Network. (2004). TRI Search: About the Data. 2005, from http://www.rtknet.org/triabout.html. However, in tables comparing on-site and off-site disposal for all industries, the chemical will be listed only as an on-site disposal for the site receiving the chemical—it will not be listed as an off-site disposal for the generating facility, to avoid double-counting the same chemical.
[76] Dolinoy, D. C., & Miranda, M. L. (2004). GIS Modeling of Air Toxics Releases from TRI-Reporting and Non-TRI-Reporting Facilities: Impacts for Environmental Justice. Environmental Health Perspectives, 112(17), 1717-1724.
Right-to-Know Network. (2004). TRI Search: About the Data. 2005, from http://www.rtknet.org/triabout.html.
[77] More specifically, they have lowered the reporting thresholds for certain PBTs to 10 or 100 lbs. (e.g., lead and lead compounds), and have lowered the thresholds to 0.1 gram for dioxin and dioxin-like compounds. See Environmental Protection Agency. (2005). Electronic - Facility Data Release (e-FDR) for Reporting Year (RY) 2003. from http://www.epa.gov/tri-efdr/.
Dolinoy, D. C., & Miranda, M. L. (2004). GIS Modeling of Air Toxics Releases from TRI-Reporting and Non-TRI-Reporting Facilities: Impacts for Environmental Justice. Environmental Health Perspectives, 112(17), 1717-1724.
[78] See Environmental Protection Agency. (2005). Electronic - Facility Data Release (e-FDR) for Reporting Year (RY) 2003. from http://www.epa.gov/tri-efdr/.
[79] As of January 2005, even Scorecard.org’s data was still from the EPA’s 2002 public data release.
[80] See Environmental Defense (2005). Scorecard. Retrieved from http://www.scorecard.org.
[81] Only in certain cases are really large facilities required to do hour-by-hour monitoring—one example is the Cheswick Power Plant, which is required to have county and state permits for NOx emissions.
[82] According to a 2001 General Accounting Office study, as much as 96% of emissions reporting is based upon estimates rather than actual monitoring. See http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0146.pdf, as cited by http://www.scorecard.org/general/tri/tri_data.html.
[83] Although a recent study criticized the EPA for underestimating releases, the agency weakened air emissions reporting requirements in 2004—facilities must now conduct actual monitoring only more than once every five years.[83]
[84] However, the EPA does report facilities known to have one or more Notice of Significant Error (NOSE) forms—these represented less than 0.5% of all facilities reporting nationwide during the 2003 reporting year. See http://www.epa.gov/enviro/html/tris/efdr_nose_facilities_11_23_04.pdf.
[85] Environmental Defense. (2004). Which Pollution Sources Are Covered by TRI? Retrieved November 1, 2004, from http://www.scorecard.org/general/tri/tri_source.html.
[86] According to 2002 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers data as cited by the Port of Pittsburgh website (http://www.port.pittsburgh.pa.us), Pittsburgh is the United States’ second busiest inland port and its 13th busiest port of any kind.
[87] Environmental Defense. (2004). Which Pollution Sources Are Covered by TRI? Retrieved November, 2004, from http://www.scorecard.org/general/tri/tri_source.html.
Environmental Protection Agency. (2002). The Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) and Factors to Consider When Using TRI Data. Retrieved January 10, 2005, from http://www.epa.gov/tri/2002_tri_brochure.pdf.
[88] While reporting requirements for some specific chemicals like lead are lower, only manufacturing facilities that a) have 10 or more full-time employees and b) manufacture or process more than 25,000 pounds of any TRI chemical, or otherwise use more than 10,000 pounds of any TRI chemical, must report releases and waste management strategies (http://www.epa.gov/triinter/guide_docs/2001/brochure2000.pdf).
[89] U.S. Census Bureau (2002). 2002 County Business Patterns (NAICS, Allegheny County). Retrieved February, 2005 from http://censtats.census.gov/cgi-bin/cbpnaic/cbpdetl.pl. (Industry code 8123 includes coin-operated establishments.)
[90] For example, in the Pottsgrove, PA Occidental Chemical/OxyChem example cited earlier, the plant’s air emissions of as much as 100,000 pounds per year of the carcinogen vinyl chloride were legal and permitted.
[91] Environmental Defense. (2004). The Limits of TRI Data. Retrieved January 11, 2004, from http://www.scorecard.org/general/tri/tri_gen.html.
[92] Dolinoy, D. C., & Miranda, M. L. (2004). GIS Modeling of Air Toxics Releases from TRI-Reporting and Non-TRI-Reporting Facilities: Impacts for Environmental Justice. Environmental Health Perspectives, 112(17), 1717-1724.
See also http://www.scorecard.org/general/tri/tri_source.html, http://www.epa.gov/tri/2002_tri_brochure.pdf.
[93] Scorecard.org allows searching by ZIP code, but it reports county-level data.
[94] Retrieved January 19, 2005 from http://www.achd.net/airqual/pubs/pdf/2003EIrpt.pdf.
[95] These ranges are often interpreted as the midpoint of the range--e.g., a range of 500-1000 lbs. would be interpreted as 750 lbs., which may be an underestimate or overestimate of a few hundred pounds. See Right-to-Know Network. (2004). TRI Search: About the Data. Retrieved February, 2005 from http://www.rtknet.org/triabout.html.
[96] According to at least one frequent user of the system, these numbers may take several phone calls to obtain.
[97] While too lengthy for inclusion here, many of these changes are listed in Environmental Protection Agency. (2002). The Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) and Factors to Consider When Using TRI Data. Retrieved January 10, 2005, from http://www.epa.gov/tri/2002_tri_brochure.pdf.
[100] See Environmental Protection Agency. (2003). Environmental Justice Geographic Assessment Tool. Accessed February 2005 at http://www.epa.gov/enviro/ej/.
[101] See U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2004). Continuous Emissions Monitoring Systems. Retrieved February, 2005 from http://www.epa.gov/airmarkets/monitoring/index.html.
[103] This includes Ron Gray, an Air Quality Program Specialist with the Continuous Compliance Section, Division of Compliance and Enforcement, 717-772-4482, rongray@state.pa.us.
[104] ACHD’s Air Quality Program can be contacted at 412-578-8103 or 412-687-ACHD.
[105] While there have been occasional reports of difficulty obtaining ID numbers when name searches fail, often after a facility changes owners, PADEP reports that they add new information to the system within a few months of receiving it.
[106] Cheswick Station received special attention because it emits roughly half of Allegheny County’s total known point source air emissions.
[107] Hochhauser, M.L. (2004). Point Source Emission Inventory Report for 2003, with a Summary of Air Emission Estimations from Point Sources in Allegheny County, PA: Criteria Air Pollutant for 1996-2003 and Hazardous Air Pollutants for 1998-2003. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.achd.net/airqual/pubs/pdf/2003EIrpt.pdf.
[108] Wheitner, D. (2005). Electronic correspondence from R. Westman.
[110] Wheitner, D. (2005). Interview with Jeff Yurk, EPA Region 6.
[111] For information about the National Emissions Inventory, see http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/net/neiwhatis.html. Estimates are based upon a combination of modeling and actual data.
[112] Hopey, D. (2005). Allegheny Energy faces suit over power plant emissions. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, February 17, 2005. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.post-gazette.com.
[113] PennFuture (2005). PennFuture Files Suit against Allegheny Energy to Stop Massive Air Pollution from Hatfield's Ferry Power Plant as Congress Considers Weakening Air Pollution Protections: Local Citizens Put at Risk by Dangerous Air Contamination 6 Days out of 7. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.pennfuture.org.
[114] Citizens for Pennsylvania's Future and Charlotte H. O'Rourke v. Allegheny Energy Supply Co. LLC. (Complaint). (2005). from http://www.pennfuture.org/docs/complaint02-16-05.pdf.
[115] See the subsection on continuous monitoring and permit data, under “Point Sources: Non-TRI.” The law requiring Hatfield’s Ferry to have a continuous opacity monitoring system is the SIP, or State Implementation Plan, outlining how Pennsylvania will meet its Clean Air Act obligations. See Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (2004). CSMSs With at Least a Phase I Application for the State of Pennsylvania. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/airwaste/aq/cemspage/docs/CSMSList.pdf.
[116] Per the Pennsylvania Right to Know Law, P.L. 390, 65 P.S. §§ 66.1 - 66.9. According to different sources, the time it takes to obtain data from different agencies or offices may vary greatly. (For national-level data, see the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Freedom of Information Act Page at http://www.epa.gov/foia/.)
[117] Wheitner, D. (2005). Interview with C. McPhedran, PennFuture.
[118] Hopey, D. (2005). Allegheny Energy faces suit over power plant emissions. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, February 17, 2005. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.post-gazette.com.
[119] Wheitner, D. (2005). Interview with C. McPhedran, PennFuture.
[120] Per the Pennsylvania Right to Know Law, P.L. 390, 65 P.S. §§ 66.1 - 66.9.
[121] For information about the National Emissions Inventory, see http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/net/neiwhatis.html. Estimates are based upon a combination of modeling and actual data.
[123] Users with a knowledge of Microsoft Access and time to learn the codes and labels of the various data fields can download data tables of estimates through year 2002 at http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/net/.
[124] See Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (2001). Fact Sheet: Livestock and Poultry Operations in PA (http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/watermgt/wqp/wqp_wm/cafo_home.htm) for an outline of the different types of CAFOs.
[125] See Sierra Club (2005). Sierra Club Clean Water and Factory Farms: Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved from http://www.sierraclub.org/factoryfarms/faq.asp. See also Grace Factory Farm Homepage, http://www.factoryfarm.org.
[126] Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (2001). Fact Sheet: Understanding CAFOs. http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/watermgt/wqp/wqp_wm/cafo_home.htm.
[127] EPA Superfund Frequently Asked Questions and Comment Submission. Retrieved March 2, 2005 from http://epa.custhelp.com/cgi-bin/epa.cfg/php/enduser/std_alp.php.
[129] CERCLIS stands for “Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Information System.”
[130] See McAuley, S. (2003). MTBE Concentrations in Ground Water in Pennsylvania. Retrieved January, 2005 from http://pa.water.usgs.gov/reports/wrir03-4201.pdf. A number of sites are in the Pittsburgh Region, including Allegheny County.
[131] Wheitner, D. (2004). Interview with M. Arnowitt, Clean Water Action.
[132] Lear, L. (1998). Rachel Carson Biography. Retrieved March 2, 2005 from http://www.rachelcarson.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=bio.
[134] More of an environmental monitoring than a point source monitoring data warehouse, the USGS national Water Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Data Warehouse map query tool (http://infotrek.er.usgs.gov/servlet/page?_pageid=543&_dad=portal30&_schema=PORTAL30) allows mapping of levels of specific chemicals recorded at 142 surface water sampling sites and 95 groundwater wells in the Allegheny and Monongahela Basin study area, from 1996-1998.
[135] The Board of Public Education of the Pittsburgh Public School District (1998). Integrated Pest Management Policy. Retrieved January 31, 2005 from http://www.beyondpesticides.org/schools/schoolpolicies/local%20policies/Pittsburgh.pdf.
[136] Wheitner, D. (2005). Interview with Myron Arnowitt, Director, Clean Water Action. Pennsylvania Clean Water Action Website. Retrieved January 31, 2005 from http://www.cleanwateraction.org/pa/pesticides.html.
[137] Residents and pesticide applicators sign up for the online system, which allows residents to be notified 24 hours in advance of a nearby residential pesticide application—the data in such a system, of course, could also be utilized by the public environmental health community. For more information, see Arnold, H. (2004). Pesticide registry benefits neighbors. Retrieved January 31, 2005 from http://www.dailyfreeman.com/site/news.cfm?newsid=11340615&BRD=1769&PAG=461&dept_id=74969&rfi=6.
[138] See National Research Council - Water Science and Technology Board. (2005). Regional Cooperation for Water Quality Improvement in Southwestern Pennsylvania (Pre-Publication Copy) (pp. 65-100). and Luneburg, W. V. (2004). Where the Three Rivers Converge. Unassessed Waters and the Future of EPA’s TMDL Program: A Case Study. Retrieved January 15, 2005, from http://3r2n.cfa.cmu.edu/Year4/reports/social/policy/policy.htm.
[139] Wheitner, D. (2004). Interview with J. Schombert, 3 Rivers Wet Weather Demonstration Project. For more information, see http://3riverswetweather.org/f_resources/f_gis.stm.
[141] Environmental Protection Agency (1994). Environmental Fact Sheet: Air Toxics from Motor Vehicles. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/otaq/f02004.pdf.
[142] See the Group Against Smog and Pollution (GASP) website, http://www.gasp-pgh.org, for information on school bus idling.
[144] NEI on-road mobile estimates are derived from “the Federal Highway Administration's vehicle miles traveled estimates, and EPA's MOBILE Model emission factors (What is the National Emissions Inventory? http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/net/neiwhatis.html.)
[145] http://pittsburghlive.com/x/tribune-review/trib/pittsburgh/s_298933.html, http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/05032/450926.stm
[147] See http://www.catf.us/projects/diesel/dieselhealth/?site=3. The estimates were created using REMSAD (Regional Modeling System for Aerosols and Deposition), described at http://remsad.saintl.com/.
[149] Southwestern Pennsylvania Commission (2004). Air Quality Conformity Determination for the Pittsburgh Transportation Management Area. Retrieved January, 2005 from http://www.spc9.org/trans_airreport.shtml.
[150] Wheitner, D. (2005). Interviews with C. Davidson and A. Robinson, Carnegie Mellon University Air quality Group. So far this has been done only on a very limited basis—they hope to do more extensive monitoring beginning in summer of 2005, with improved equipment and methodology.
[151] According to 2002 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers data as cited by the Port of Pittsburgh website, http://www.port.pittsburgh.pa.us.
[153] Wheitner, D. (2005). Interview with C. Davidson, Carnegie Mellon University Air Quality Group.
[154] Corbett, J. (2005). University of Delaware Faculty Webpage. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.ocean.udel.edu/cms/jcorbett/#pubs.
[155] For example, many air emissions react with other substances in the atmosphere, taking on different forms after they leave the source. Source: Wheitner, D. (2004, 2005). Interviews with C. Davidson, Carnegie Mellon University Air Quality Group, and J. Graham, Allegheny County Health Department.
[156] For example, in early 2004 the Allegheny County Health Department filed a motion to intervene in a lawsuit against a Steubenville, Ohio power plant believed to contribute to Allegheny County’s sulfur dioxide pollution. See Allegheny County Health Department (2004). County Health Department Moves to Stop Upwind Air Pollution. Retrieved November 23, 2004 from http://www.county.alleghey.pa.us/news/240304.asp.
[157] Figdor, E. and Chausow, L. (2004). Danger in the Air: Unhealthy Levels of Air Pollution in 2003. Retrieved December, 2004 from http://www.pennenvironment.org/reports/Danger%20in%20the%20Air%20Final%20PA1.pdf.
[159] Source: Wheitner. D. (2005). Electronic correspondence from G. Mentzer, Chief, Field Operations, Bureau of Air Quality, Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection.
[160] See Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Air Quality Homepage. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/airwaste/aq/default.htm.
[162] A more in-depth description of the AQI is at http://www.epa.gov/airnow/aqi.html.
[164] Allegheny County Health Department (2005). Air Quality Quarterly Report Ending December 2004. Retrieved March 4, 2005 from http://www.achd.net/airqual/pubs/pdf/4q04aqrpt.pdf.
[165] Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (2005). Current Air Quality Index (AQI) by Area. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/airwaste/aq/aqm/psipitt.htm.
[166] Mentzer, G. (2005). Electronic correspondence to D. Wheitner. PADEP’s website does not incorporate measurements from any of ACHD’s 22 monitoring sites within Allegheny County (a number of which are within Pittsburgh).
[169] See http://www.epa.gov/air/data/index.html (click on “Reports and Maps”).
[170] See http://www.achd.net/airqual/pubs/pdf/AQ2003.pdf. Within Allegheny County, 5 of 12 sites didn’t meet the PM2.5 annual standard for 2001-2003, but they did meet the 24-hour standard). Ozone standard attainment is based upon three consecutive years of annual data.
[171] See the EPA PM Supersite homepage at http://homer.cheme.cmu.edu/ for more information.
[172] For example, see the following:
Pekney, N. J.; Davidson, C. I.; Robinson, A. L.; Zhou, L.; Hopke, P. K.;
Eatough, D. (2005). Identification of major sources of PM2.5 in Pittsburgh using PMF and Unmix. Aerosol Science and Technology.
Submitted.
Pekney, N. J.; Davidson, C. I.; Zhou, L.; Hopke, P. K. (2005). Application of PSCF and CPF to PMF-modeled sources of PM2.5 in Pittsburgh. Aerosol Science and Technology. Submitted.
Pekney, N. J.; Davidson, C. I.; Bein, K.; Wexler, A.; Johntson, M., Identification of Sources of Atmospheric PM at the Pittsburgh Supersite: RSMS III and Filter-based Positive Matrix Factorization. Manuscript not yet submitted.
Tang, W., Raymond, T., Wittig, B., Davidson, C., Pandis, S., Robinson, A. and Crist, K. (2004). Spatial Variations of PM2.5 During the Pittsburgh Air Quality Study. Aerosol Science and Technology, 38 (S2): 80-90.
[173] Wheitner, D. (2005). Interview with C. Davidson, Professor, Carnegie Mellon University Departments of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Engineering and Public Policy.
[174] Examples include sulfates, nitrates (from nitrogen oxide), organic carbons (anything volatile that condenses), elemental carbon (e.g., from coke plants), and trace metals. Sulfates and organic carbon compounds are among the most common species in Pittsburgh. Sources:
Wheitner, D. (2004). Interview with J. Graham, Allegheny County Health Department.
Maranche, J. (2005). Allegheny County Health Department Air Quality Quarterly Report Ending December 2004. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.achd.net/airqual/pubs/pdf/4q04aqrpt.pdf.
[175] Wheitner, D. (2004). Interview with J. Graham, Allegheny County Health Department.
[176] See Appendix E: DEP Pittsburgh Area Ambient Monitoring Sites.
[177] Wheitner, D. (2005). Electronic correspondence from G. Mentzer, Chief, Field Operations, Bureau of Air Quality, Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection. (With minor modifications suggested by A. Gomez, Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection.)
[180] See Environmental Protection Agency (2002). The National-Scale Air Toxics Assessment. Retrieved March 2005 from http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/nata/.
[181] Estimating exposures and health risks for toxics excluding diesel soot, the project also found chromium, benzene and formaldehyde to pose the greatest cancer risk nationwide. Figdor, E. (2002). Dangers of Diesel: How Diesel Soot and Other Air Toxics Increase Americans’ Risk of Cancer. U.S. PIRG Education Fund. Retrieved February 2, 2005 from http://www.pennenvironment.org/reports/dangersofdieselreport2002.pdf.
[182] These include a group of chemicals often referred to as BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene), found in petroleum products including gasoline, and various solvents. See also Michigan State University (2005). Envirotools BTEX Factsheet. Retreived March, 2005 from http://www.envirotools.org/factsheets/btex.shtml.
[183] Allegheny County Health Department (2005). Monthly Air Quality Reports. Retrieved from http://www.achd.net/airqual/mreport.php.
[184] Notes: Because this table utilizes the Southwestern Pennsylvania Commission’s definition of region (see Appendix B: Counties in Definitions of “Region”), it excludes two PADEP monitors in Cambria County. Additionally, the EPA AirData online interface excludes PADEP’s Indiana County site, included here. Each site does not necessarily monitor all criteria pollutants.
[185]Sources: Allegheny County Health Department (2005). Air Quality Reports. Accessed January, 2005 from http://www.achd.net/airqual/mreport.php.
Environmental Protection Agency (2004). Monitor Count Report-Criteria Air Pollutants. (Query on counties in Pittsburgh region.) Retrieved January 19, 2005 from http://www.epa.gov/aqspubl1/. (See http://www.epa.gov/air/data/help/hmoncoun.html for help on using this tool.)
Wheitner, D. (2005). Electronic correspondence from Charles Zadakis, Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Air Quality.
[186] Allegheny County Health Department (2005). Air Quality Reports. Retrieved from http://www.achd.net/airqual/mreport.php.
[187] Intermittent or site-specific sampling is done for total suspended particulates, dustfall, air toxics and components of particulate matter including lead. (Lead is not included in the 10-second continuous monitoring, but particulate matter is sampled every 6 days or more.) Additional details on the monitoring system, including the pollutants monitored at each site, are included in the Allegheny County Health Department’s 2003 Air Quality Report, at http://www.achd.net/airqual/pubs/pdf/AQ2003.pdf.
[188] Allegheny County Health Department (2005). Air Quality Reports. Retrieved from http://www.achd.net/airqual/mreport.php.
[189] Wheitner, D. (2004). Interview with J. Graham and R. Westman, Allegheny County Health Department.
[190] ACHD’s Liberty Borough monitor site is an example of a community AND source-oriented site.
[191] Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (2005). Current Air Quality Index (AQI) by Area. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/airwaste/aq/aqm/psipitt.htm.
[192] Wheitner, D. (2005). Electronic correspondence from W. Aljoe, National Energy Technology Laboratory.
Wheitner, D. (2005). Interview with A. Robinson, Carnegie Mellon University Air Quality Group.
[193] See http://www.netl.doe.gov/coal/E&WR/air_q, click “Ambient Monitoring,” then click “Air Quality Database and Analytical Tool.”
[194] We thank Jayme Graham and Roger Westman, Allegheny County Health Department, and Cliff Davidson, Carnegie Mellon University, for some of the ideas in this section.
[195] This is especially an issue given that, as mentioned earlier, the bulk of pollutants may come from sources other than major point sources (e.g., area and mobile sources).
[196] Figdor, E., 2002. Dangers of Diesel: How Diesel Soot and Other Air Toxics Increase Americans’ Risk of Cancer. U.S. PIRG Education Fund. Retrieved February 2, 2005 from http://www.pennenvironment.org/reports/dangersofdieselreport2002.pdf
[197] Wheitner, D. (2005). Interview with C. Davidson. For additional information, see the section on Polycyclic Organic Matter (POM) in Environmental Defense (2004). Hazardous Air Pollutants Driving Cancer and Noncancer Risk Estimates. Retrieved February, 2005 from http://www.scorecard.org/env-releases/def/hap_drivers.html.
Polycyclic aromatic compounds are also on the EPA’s list of Persistent Bioaccumulative and Toxic chemicals (PBTs). See Environmental Protection Agency (2004). TRI PBT Chemical List. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.epa.gov/tri/chemical/pbt_chem_list.htm.
[198] See Environmental Protection Agency (2004). Fine Particle (PM 2.5) Designations: Frequent Questions. Retrieved February, 2005 from http://www.epa.gov/pmdesignations/faq.htm.
[199] Clean Water Action/Clean Water Fund (2005). Toxic Air Pollution: How We Can Protect Our Neighborhoods from Its Cumulative Impact (Informational brochure).
[200] Monitoring the air around us, as opposed to monitoring at the point of release from the source.
[201] Clean Water Fund (2004). CWF Reports. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.cleanwaterfund.org/Reports.html.
[202] Clean Water Action, Clean Water Fund, and Neville Island Good Neighbor Committee (2002). Neville Island Bucket Brigade: 2002 Report. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.cleanwaterfund.org/Reports.html.
[204] Clean Water Action (2005). Clean Water Action News, Pennsylvania Newsletter, January/February 2005. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.cleanwateraction.org/pdf/pa_jan05.pdf.
[205] Wheitner, D. (2005). Interview with M. Arnowitt, Pittsburgh Clean Water Action.
[206] Environmental Protection Agency. EPA Brownfields Cleanup and Redevelopment. Retrieved February 8, 2005 from http://www.epa.gov/brownfields/.
[207] Reisch, M. (2001). Superfund and the Brownfields Issue. Retrieved February, 2005 from http://www.ncseonline.org/NLE/CRSreports/Waste/waste-10.cfm?&CFID=19142657&CFTOKEN=75896183.
[208] Bartsch, C. (2003). Analysis of Pennsylvania’s Brownfields Program. Retrieved February, 2005 from http://www.brookings.edu/dybdocroot/es/urban/pa/Bartsch.pdf.
[209] Wheitner, D. (2005). Interview with D. Lange, Carnegie Mellon University Steinbrenner Center.
[210] Wisconsin Department of Health and Family Services. (2004). Public Health and Brownfields. Retrieved February 1, 2005, from http://www.dhfs.state.wi.us/eh/HlthHaz/fs/Brownfield.htm.
[211] Wheitner, D. (2004, 2005). Correspondence and interview with D. Lange, Carnegie Mellon University Steinbrenner Center. The Pittsburgh RISES database had information on roughly 400 sites in Allegheny County, around 20% of which were brownfields. Containing only basic information on former site uses, total area, and location, it did not have useful data on the extent of contamination. One difficulty with gaining support was a fear that reporting the negatives of properties would devalue stakeholders’ communities.
[213] Same region as defined by the Southwestern Pennsylvania Commission, but including Somerset and excluding Butler.
[214] See http://www.emappa.dep.state.pa.us/emappa/viewer.htm, select the “Facility” tab, open the “Brownfields” folder, and select “Brownfields.”
[216] See Environmental Protection Agency. (2004). EnviroMapper for Brownfields. Retrieved February 25, 2005, from http://www.epa.gov/enviro/bf/.
[217] Wheitner, D. (2005). Interview with D. Lange, Steinbrenner Institute, Carnegie Mellon University.
[218] Wheitner, D. (2004). Personal communication with D. Crumrine, PA CleanWays of Allegheny County.
[219] Wheitner, D. (2004). Personal communication with D. Crumrine, PA Cleanways of Allegheny County.
PA CleanWays of Allegheny County (year unknown). Illegal dump Survey Assessment Form.
[220] Wheitner, D. (2004). Personal communication with S. Sortino, PADEP Southwestern Regional Office. While PA CleanWays deals with all types of illegal dumping sites, tires are a priority for PADEP due to mosquito breeding and West Nile Virus—they frequently treat sites with BTI, an insecticide with a relatively low environmental risk.
[221] There are currently roughly 150 sites in their computer system, and many more known sites not yet in the system.
[222] If there are more than 100 or 200 tires, they estimate content using tires per cubic yard, which can be 20-25% off. PADEP uses the same estimation formulas used by scrap tire management nationwide. For example, one site on Route 51 in Elizabeth Township is estimated to have around half a million tires.
[223] Currently, soil sampling is done only at particularly exceptional sites, and watershed associations occasionally conduct sampling.
[224] This could be due to children or individuals living on/near the site coming in contact with hypodermic needles.
[225] Residual waste is “nonhazardous industrial waste. It includes waste material (solid, liquid or gas) produced by industrial, mining and agricultural operations.” See PADEP’s Residual Waste Fact Sheet at http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/airwaste/wm/MRW/Facts/Residual_Waste.htm.
[226] Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Land Recycling and Waste Management, Division of Reporting and Fee Collection. Hazardous, Residual and Municipal Waste Data. Retrieved February, 2005 from http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/airwaste/wm/drfc/reports/repinfo.htm.
[227] Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection. Pennsylvania Municipal Waste Disposal Facilities. Retrieved February, 2005 from http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/airwaste/wm/MRW/Docs/Landfill_list.htm.
[228] Sites are required to conduct an annual physical survey or flyover—the flyover measures the height and area of waste coverage—and report these data to PADEP.
[229] Per Section 217.412 of the municipal waste regulations; the requirements in that section vary for types of facilities other than landfills, and “if there are problems at the facility the [inspection] frequency increases significantly.” Wheitner, D. (2005). Electronic correspondence with S. Socash, PADEP Bureau of Waste Management.
[230] Wheitner, D. (2005). Personal correspondence with J. Beatty and S. Socash, PADEP Bureau of Waste Management. Their contact information is at PADEP’s Bureau of Waste Management website, http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/airwaste/wm/Contacts.htm.
[231] Wheitner, D. (2005). Personal correspondence with S. Socash, PADEP Bureau of Waste Management. Contacts for PADEP’s Southwestern Regional Office are at http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/fieldops/sw/misc/swcontacts.html. Additional questions may be directed to engineer Terry Killan, also within the PADEP Bureau of Waste Management, at 717-787-7381. The contact within the PADEP Southwestern PA Regional Office (412-442-4000) is David Eberle, Acting Facility Chief.
[232] The cost is currently $55 for the “Total Sorbed Metals Test.” See http://www.aasl.psu.edu/EnvirSoilTests.HTM.
[233] Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (2005). Radon Division Website. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/airwaste/rp/Radon_Division/Radon_Homepage.htm.
[235] For example, see http://waterdata.usgs.gov/pa/nwis/rt/.
[236] For an overview of data in most areas of water quality, see National Research Council - Water Science and Technology Board. (2005). Regional Cooperation for Water Quality Improvement in Southwestern Pennsylvania (Pre-Publication Copy) (pp. 65-100)., Chapter 3: Water Quality in the Region.
For a discussion specific to waterborne bacteriological contaminant data, see Luneburg, W. V. (2004). Where the Three Rivers Converge. Unassessed Waters and the Future of EPA's TMDL Program: A Case Study. Retrieved January 15, 2005, from http://3r2n.cfa.cmu.edu/Year4/reports/social/policy/policy.htm.
[237] National Research Council - Water Science and Technology Board. (2005). Regional Cooperation for Water Quality Improvement in Southwestern Pennsylvania (Pre-Publication Copy) (pp. 65-100).
[238] Ibid., Chapter 3: Water Quality in the Region.
[239] Luneburg, W. V. (2004). Where the Three Rivers Converge. Unassessed Waters and the Future of EPA’s TMDL Program: A Case Study. Retrieved January 15, 2005, from http://3r2n.cfa.cmu.edu/Year4/reports/social/policy/policy.htm.
National Research Council - Water Science and Technology Board. (2005). Regional Cooperation for Water Quality Improvement in Southwestern Pennsylvania (Pre-Publication Copy) (pp. 65-100).
[240] See Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (2004). Basic Instructions for Retrieving Water Quality Data from EPA’s STORET System. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/watermgt/wqp/wqstandards/STORET-Access.htm.
[242] For example, the Pennsylvania Senior Environmental Corps (PaSEC), the Environmental Alliance for Senior Involvement (EASI), and the Alliance for Aquatic Resource Monitoring (ALLARM).
[243] National Research Council - Water Science and Technology Board. (2005). Regional Cooperation for Water Quality Improvement in Southwestern Pennsylvania (Pre-Publication Copy) (pp. 65-100).
[244] Luneburg, W. V. (2004). Where the Three Rivers Converge. Unassessed Waters and the Future of EPA's TMDL Program: A Case Study. Retrieved January 15, 2005, from http://3r2n.cfa.cmu.edu/Year4/reports/social/policy/policy.htm.
[245] See National Research Council - Water Science and Technology Board. (2005). Regional Cooperation for Water Quality Improvement in Southwestern Pennsylvania (Pre-Publication Copy) (pp. 65-100) for additional detail.
[246] See the 3 Rivers Wet Weather Demonstration Project Homepage. Retrieved December 1, 2004, from http://www.3riverswetweather.org/.
National Research Council - Water Science and Technology Board. (2005). Regional Cooperation for Water Quality Improvement in Southwestern Pennsylvania (Pre-Publication Copy) (pp. 65-100).
[247] DEP has secured support of several volunteer groups to collect these data elsewhere, but within Allegheny County 3 Rivers 2nd Nature is currently the only private endeavor to monitor streams and rivers for bacterial contamination.
[248] Luneburg, W. V. (2004). Where the Three Rivers Converge. Unassessed Waters and the Future of EPA's TMDL Program: A Case Study. Retrieved January 15, 2005, from http://3r2n.cfa.cmu.edu/Year4/reports/social/policy/policy.htm.
National Research Council - Water Science and Technology Board. (2005). Regional Cooperation for Water Quality Improvement in Southwestern Pennsylvania (Pre-Publication Copy) (pp. 65-100).
[249] Luneburg, W. V. (2004). Where the Three Rivers Converge. Unassessed Waters and the Future of EPA’s TMDL Program: A Case Study. Retrieved January 15, 2005, from http://3r2n.cfa.cmu.edu/Year4/reports/social/policy/policy.htm.
[250] U.S. Environmental protection Agency. Monitoring and Assessing Water, Quality, Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A Methods Manual, Ch. 5 Section 11, http://www.eap.gov/volunteer/streem/vms511.html, as cited by Collins, T. (2005), Information and Authority: The Perception of Water Quality (Final unpublished draft).
[251] In partnership with 3 Rivers Wet Weather, ALCOSAN and the Allegheny County Health Department.
[252] A transect is a series of points sampled across a river.
[253] Luneburg, W. V. (2004). Where the Three Rivers Converge. Unassessed Waters and the Future of EPA's TMDL Program: A Case Study. Retrieved January 15, 2005, from http://3r2n.cfa.cmu.edu/Year4/reports/social/policy/policy.htm.
[254] Crooked Creek and Thompson Run, with averages across 4 sampling points.
[255] Documentation from Tim Collins, Director, 3 Rivers 2nd Nature, January 2005.
[257] PA Department of Environmental Protection (2004), as cited by National Research Council (2005), p. 65.
[259] Luneburg, W. V. (2004). Where the Three Rivers Converge. Unassessed Waters and the Future of EPA's TMDL Program: A Case Study. Retrieved January 15, 2005, from http://3r2n.cfa.cmu.edu/Year4/reports/social/policy/policy.htm.
[260] Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission (2005). Bacteria Sampling Information Page. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.orsanco.org/watqual/rec/bact.htm.
[262] Luneburg, W. V. (2004). Where the Three Rivers Converge. Unassessed Waters and the Future of EPA's TMDL Program: A Case Study. Retrieved January 15, 2005, from http://3r2n.cfa.cmu.edu/Year4/reports/social/policy/policy.htm.
Documentation from Tim Collins, Director, 3 Rivers 2nd Nature, January 2005.
[263] National Research Council - Water Science and Technology Board. (2005). Regional Cooperation for Water Quality Improvement in Southwestern Pennsylvania (Pre-Publication Copy) (pp. 65-100).
[264] Irritation and inflammation of the digestive tract, with a variety of possible causes including infection.
[265] Luneburg, W. V. (2004). Where the Three Rivers Converge. Unassessed Waters and the Future of EPA’s TMDL Program: A Case Study. Retrieved January 15, 2005, from http://3r2n.cfa.cmu.edu/Year4/reports/social/policy/policy.htm.
See also National Research Council (2004). Indicators for Waterborne Pathogens, available at http://books.nap.edu/catalog/11010.html.
[266] Documentation from Tim Collins, Director, 3 Rivers 2nd Nature, January 2005.
[267] Wheitner, D. (2004). Interview with J. Schombert, 3 Rivers Wet Weather Demonstration Project.
[268] http://pa.water.usgs.gov/reports/sir2004-5009.pdf (see Chapra, 1997); Wheitner, D. (2004). Interview with J. Schombert, 3 Rivers Wet Weather Demonstration Project.
[269] Wheitner, D. (2004). Interview with John Schombert, 3 Rivers Wet Weather Demonstration Project; Knauer, K. (2004). The Clean Streams Project. Tributary Sampling for E. coli in Allegheny County: Toms Run, Squaw Run, Streets Run, Saw Mill Run, and Pine Creek. Retrieved February 1, 2005 from http://3r2n.cfa.cmu.edu/Year4/reports/social/clean/clean.htm.
[270] National Research Council - Water Science and Technology Board. (2005). Regional Cooperation for Water Quality Improvement in Southwestern Pennsylvania (Pre-Publication Copy) (pp. 65-100).
[271] Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection. (Various years.) Annual Drinking Water Quality Reports. Retrieved February, 2005 from http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/watermgt/WSM/WSM_DWM/Complian/CCR-Links.htm.
[273] Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (Various years). Annual Drinking Water Quality Reports. Retrieved February, 2005 from http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/watermgt/WSM/WSM_DWM/Complian/CCR-Links.htm.
[274] Pittsburgh Water and Sewer Authority. (2004). 2003 Annual Drinking Water Quality Report. Retrieved February 28, 2005, from http://www.achd.net/pdw/pubs/pdf/pwsa2003.pdf.
[275] See EPA Safe Drinking Water Information System (SDWIS). Retrieved February 28, 2005 from http://www.epa.gov/safewater/databases.html.
[276] Other names include Dacthal, chlorothal, and chlorothal-dimethyl. For more information see the herbicide profile at the Cornell University Pesticide Management Education Program, http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/herb-growthreg/dalapon-ethephon/dcpa/herb-prof-dcpa.html.
[278] Pennsylvania Consortium for Interdisciplinary Environmental Policy (2005). Roadmap Project description, February 4, 2005 draft.
[279] Monitoring is often very frequent, however—for example, Pittsburgh Water and Sewer Authority reported having “conducted more than 100,000 analyses for approximately 1000 different chemical and microbial constituents” in 2003. See Pittsburgh Water and Sewer Authority. (2004). 2003 Annual Drinking Water Quality Report. Retrieved February 28, 2005 from http://www.achd.net/pdw/pubs/pdf/pwsa2003.pdf.
[280] While groundwater also feeds rivers and streams, and could be treated as an entirely separate topic, we combine it with well water here for brevity.
[281] Wheitner, D. (2004). Interview with M. Meit, University of Pittsburgh Center for Rural Health. Wheitner, D. (2004). Interview with B. Byers, M. Potter and C. Volz, University of Pittsburgh Center for Public Health Practice.
[282] Retrieved January 27, 2005 from http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/watermgt/wc/subjects/SrceProt/well/default.htm.
[283] National Research Council - Water Science and Technology Board. (2005). Regional Cooperation for Water Quality Improvement in Southwestern Pennsylvania (Pre-Publication Copy).
[284] Wheitner, D. (2004). Interview with M. Meit, University of Pittsburgh Center for Rural Health.
Wheitner, D. (2004). Interview with B. Byers, M. Potter and C. Volz, University of Pittsburgh Center for Public Health Practice.
Wheitner, D. (2004). Interview with M. Arnowitt, Clean Water Action.
[285] New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (2004). Private Well Testing Act Homepage. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.state.nj.us/dep/pwta/.
[286] Wheitner, D. (2004). Interview with B. Byers, M. Potter and C. Volz, University of Pittsburgh Center for Public Health Practice.
[287] See McAuley, S. (2003). MTBE Concentrations in Ground Water in Pennsylvania. Accessed January 2005 from http://pa.water.usgs.gov/reports/wrir03-4201.pdf.
[288] MTBE concentrations are thought to be more the result of storage-tank releases than atmospheric transfer. In the Pittsburgh region, Reid Low Vapor Pressure gasoline is used to address ground-level ozone issues; so much less MTBE is used than in the Philadelphia region.
[289] See Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (2004). Groundwater Protection: Monitoring Data. Retrieved March 2005 from http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/watermgt/wc/subjects/groundwaterprotection/links.htm#data.
[290] Pennsylvania Spatial Data Access (1999). Ambient and Fixed Station Network (FSN) Groundwater Monitoring Point Data (1985-1998): Metadata Summary and Download. Retrieved 3/05 from http://www.pasda.psu.edu/summary.cgi/drinkwater/gwndep99.xml.
[291] See http://www.emappa.dep.state.pa.us/emappa/viewer.htm, select the “Facility” tab, open the “Water Pollution Control Facility” folder, and select “Groundwater Monitoring Point.”
[292] Dartmouth Toxic Metals Research Program (2004). Toxic Metals: A List of Recommended Links. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.dartmouth.edu/~toxmetal/RC.shtml#links.
[294] National Research Council - Water Science and Technology Board. (2005). Regional Cooperation for Water Quality Improvement in Southwestern Pennsylvania (Pre-Publication Copy) (pp. 65-100).
[297] National Research Council - Water Science and Technology Board. (2005). Regional Cooperation for Water Quality Improvement in Southwestern Pennsylvania (Pre-Publication Copy) (pp. 65-100).
[298] Pennsylvania Consortium for Interdisciplinary Environmental Policy (2005). Roadmap Project description, February 4, 2005 draft.
[299] For example, triclosan, the active ingredient in many antibacterial soaps, which may contribute to the development of antibacterial-resistant bacteria.
[310] Senn, D. Lincoln, R. and Spengler, J. (2005). SEJ Mercury Biomarker Study. Retrieved March 2005 from www.hsph.harvard.edu/water/SEJHgStudy.pdf
[311] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2003). CDC National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals. Retrieved March 2005 from http://www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/.
[313] Hulsey, E. (2005). Interview with R. Paul, educational coordinator for Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Program, Allegheny County Health Department.
[314] U.S. Census Bureau (2000). Retrieved from http://www.census.gov.
[315] Hulsey, E. (2005). Interview with R. Paul, educational coordinator for Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Program, Allegheny County Health Department.
[317] Pennsylvania Department of Health (2002). Elevated blood lead levels in Pennsylvania children. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.dsf.health.state.pa.us/health/lib/health/familyhealth/EBLLAppenB.pdf.
[318] Hulsey, E. (2005). Interview with J.N. Logue, Director, Division of Environmental Health Epidemiology, Pennsylvania Department of Health.
[319] See the California Body Burden Campaign at http://www.calbbc.org/site/pp.asp?c=9eIELMMAG&b=65902.
[320] Hulsey, E. (2005). Interview with G. Eadon, Director, Division of Environmental Disease Prevention, New York State Department of Health.
[321] Senn, D. Lincoln, R. and Spengler, J. (2005). SEJ Mercury Biomarker Study. Retrieved 3/05 from www.hsph.harvard.edu/water/SEJHgStudy.pdf
[322] HSPH Now. Harvard School of Public Health Newsletter, Feb. 2005. Retrieved March 2005 from http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/now/feb4/mercury.html.
[323] McDowell et al. 2004, cited in SEJ Biomarker Study.
[325] See http://www.hhs.gov/ocr/hipaa/ for more information on HIPAA. There is a link specifically for “The Privacy Rule and Public Health.”
[326] Wheitner, D. (2005). Interview with D. Marchetto, Pennsylvania Department of Health. See http://www.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/fpco/ferpa/index.html for more details on FERPA.
[327] See PaDOH EPIQMS website: http://app2.health.state.pa.us/epiqms/.
[328] See PaDOH Healthy People 2010 data website: http://www.dsf.health.state.pa.us/health/cwp/view.asp?a=175&q=229393.
[329] Wheitner, D. (2004). Interview with M. Scotch, University of Pittsburgh. See http://www.phc4.org for more information.
[330] See NEDDS website: http://www.cdc.gov/nedss/About/overview.html.
[331] Penn Environment (2002). Health Tracking and Disease Clusters: The Lack Of Data on Chronic Disease Incidence and Its Impact on Cluster Investigations. Retrieved from http://www.pennenvironment.org/healthtracking_9_02.html.
[332] Ibid.
[334] Wheitner. D. (2004). Interview with L. Brink, Allegheny County Health Department.
[336] Pennsylvania Department of Health, Bureau of Community Health system, division of School Health. Students with Medical Diagnosis of Asthma by County and Health District. Retrieved February, 2005 from http://www.dsf.health.state.pa.us/health/lib/health/school_health/AsthmaByDistricts01-02.pdf.
[337] Penn Environment (2002). Health Tracking And Disease Clusters: The Lack Of Data On Chronic Disease Incidence And Its Impact On Cluster Investigations. Retrieved from
[339] RODS Laboratory. (2004). RODS Implementation: An Overview. Retrieved November 1, 2004, from http://rods.health.pitt.edu/Fact%20Sheets/RODS%20Implementation%20Info.pdf.
[340] Wheitner, D. (2004). Interview with M. Wagner, RODS Laboratory.
[341] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System Survey Data. Atlanta, Georgia: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
[342] See the PA Department of Health BRFSS website at http://www.dsf.health.state.pa.us/health/cwp/view.asp?a=175&q=235343.
[344] See http://www.achd.net.
[345] CDC Website: http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/dd/aic/about/default.htm.
[346] Board on Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, Institute of Medicine (2004). Immunization Safety Review: Vaccines and Autism.
[347] See www.fightingautism.org, reporting on data from www.ideadata.org.
[348] Yeargin-Allsopp M, et al. (2003). Prevalence of autism in a US metropolitan area. JAMA, 289:49-55.
[349] Bertrand, J. et al. (2001). Prevalence of autism in a United States population: the Brick Township, New Jersey, investigation. Pediatrics, 108(5):1155-61.
[350] Palmer R, et al. (2005). Environmental mercury release, special education rates, and autism disorder: an ecological study of Texas Health and Place. In press, corrected proof available online February 17, 2005.
[351] See the CDC Website at http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/dd/aic/states/default.htm.
[352] Cao, L., Martin, A., Polakos, N., & Moynihan, J. A. (2004). Stress causes a further decrease in immunity to herpes simplex virus-1 in immunocompromised hosts. Journal of Neuroimmunology, 156(1-2): 21.
[353] Rozanski, A., Blumenthal, J.A., Davidson, K.W., Saab, P.G. and Kubzansky, L. (2005). The epidemiology, pathophysiology, and management of psychosocial risk factors in cardiac practice: The emerging field of behavioral cardiology. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 45(5): 637-651.
[354] For example, see the following:
Kuo, F.E. (2001). Coping with Poverty: Impacts of Environment and Attention in the Inner City. Environment & Behavior, 33(1): 5-34. Retrieved October, 2002 from http://herl.uiuc.edu.
Taylor, A.F., Kuo, F.E. & Sullivan, W.C. (2001). Views of Nature & Self-Discipline: Evidence from Inner City Children. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21. Retrieved October, 2002 from http://herl.uiuc.edu.
[355] Wheitner, D. (2003). Unpublished graduate research project for “Ethics, Information Technology and Healthcare.”
[356] Per section 302 of the Pennsylvania Mental Health Procedures Act (50 P. S. § 7302), as defined at http://www.pacode.com/secure/data/055/chapter5100/chap5100toc.html.
[357] Wheitner, D. (2005). Interview with K. Thompson, University of Pittsburgh Department of Psychiatry.
[359] For example, see the following:
Kuo, F.E. (2001). Coping with Poverty: Impacts of Environment and Attention in the Inner City. Environment & Behavior, 33(1): 5-34. Retrieved October, 2002 from http://herl.uiuc.edu.
Taylor, A.F., Kuo, F.E. & Sullivan, W.C. (2001). Views of Nature & Self-Discipline: Evidence from Inner City Children. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21. Retrieved October, 2002 from http://herl.uiuc.edu.
[361] See http://www.pde.state.pa.us/, click on “Statistical Reports” below “Find Documents” on the lower left-hand side.
[363] U.S. Office of Special Education Programs (2005). IDEA Data Web Site. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.ideadata.org.
[364] See http://ed.hbg.psu.edu/ and click on “Statistical Summary.”
[365] See http://www.ideadata.org. Click on “Annual report Tables.”
[366] Kuo, F.E. & Sullivan, W.C. (2001a). Aggression & Violence in the Inner City: Effects of Environment via Mental Fatigue. Environment & Behavior, 33(4): 543-571. Retrieved October, 2002 from http://herl.uiuc.edu.
Kuo, F.E. & Sullivan, W.C. (2001b). Environment & Crime in the Inner City: Does Vegetation Reduce Crime? Environment & Behavior, 33(3): 343-367. Retrieved October, 2002 from http://herl.uiuc.edu.
[367] Molnar, B. E., Gortmaker, S. L., Bull, F. C., & Buka, S. L. (2004). Unsafe to play? Neighborhood disorder and lack of safety predict reduced physical activity among urban children and adolescents. American Journal of Health Promotion, 18(5), 378-386.
Taylor, R., & Harrell, A. (1996). Physical Environment and Crime. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles/physenv.pdf.
[368] See http://www.ncovr.org. UCR data are through 2002, and homicide and serious assaults are through 1995 and 1997, respectively.
[369] See http://www.pde.state.pa.us/, click on “Violence and Weapons Possession Collection System” under “PDE’s Top Picks.”
[370] See U.S. Department of health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Children’s bureau (2003). Child Maltreatment 2002. (Appendix D: State Commentary). Retrieved March 2005 from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/publications/cm02/index.htm.
[371] Aggregate data at the state and county level through 2003 are at http://www.dsf.health.state.pa.us/health/cwp/view.asp?a=175&Q=201652.
[372] Wheitner, D. (2005). Interview with K. Thompson, University of Pittsburgh Department of Psychiatry.
[373] Burns, B.J., Shapiro, S., Tischler, G.L., George, L.K., Hough, R.L., Bodison, D., and Miller, R.H. (1987). Psychiatric Diagnoses of Medical Service Users: Evidence from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area Program. American Journal of Public Health, 77(1): 18.
[374] Kessler, R.C. and Merikangas, K.R. The national comorbidity survey replication (NCS-R): background and aims. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research: 13(2): 60-70.
[375] Ibid.
[376] Harvard School of Medicine (2005). National Comorbidity Survey Homepage. Retrieved March 2005 from http://www.hcp.med.harvard.edu/ncs/index.php.
[377] Thanks to Ken Thompson for his insight on this.
[378] U.S. Surgeon General (1999). Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Chapter 2: The Fundamentals of Mental Health and Mental Illness--Epidemiology of Mental Illness. Retrieved March 2005 from http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/chapter2/sec2_1.html.
[379] Kasser, T. (2002). The High Price of Materialism. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
[380] Ibid.
[381] Aboelata, M. (2004, July). The built environment and health: 11 profiles of neighborhood transformation. Retrieved January 14, 2005, Flournoy, R., & Yen, I. (2004). The Influence of Community Factors on Health: An Annotated Bibliography: PolicyLink.
[382] Northridge, M. E., Stover, G. N., Rosenthal, J. E., & Sherard, D. (2003). Environmental equity and health: Understanding complexity and moving forward. American Journal of Public Health, 93(2), 209-214.
[383] Ewing, R., Schmid, T., Killingsworth, R., Zlot, A., & Raudenbush, S. (2003). Relationship between urban sprawl and physical activity, obesity, and morbidity. American Journal of Health Promotion, 18(1), 47-57.
Owen, N., Humpel, N., Leslie, E., Bauman, A., & Sallis, J. F. (2004). Understanding environmental influences on walking; Review and research agenda. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 27(1), 67-76.
[384] Heymann, J., & Fischer, J. (2003). Neighborhoods, Health Research, and Its Relevance to Public Policy. In I. Kawachi & L. Berkman (Eds.), Neigborhoods and Health (pp. 335-348). New York: Oxford University Press.
[385] Pettit, K.L.S., Kingsley, G.T. and Coulton, C.J. (2003). Neighborhoods and Health: Building Evidence for Local Policy. Retrieved February, 2005 from http://www.urban.org/nnip/health03.html.
[386] Wilson, E. H., Hurd, J. D., Civco, D. L., Prisloe, M. P., & Arnold, C. (2003). Development of a geospatial model to quantify, describe, and map urban growth. Remote Sensing of Environment, 86, 275-285.
[387] Ewing, R., Schmid, T., Killingsworth, R., Zlot, A., & Raudenbush, S. (2003). Relationship between urban sprawl and physical activity, obesity, and morbidity. American Journal of Health Promotion, 18(1), 47-57.
McCann, B., & Ewing, R. (2003). Measuring the Health Effects of Sprawl: A National Analysis of Physical Activity, Obesity, and Chronic Diseases: Smart Growth America and Surface Transportation Policy Project. Retrieved from http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/report/HealthSprawl8.03.pdf.
[388] Clarion Associates, Inc. (2000). The Costs of Sprawl in Pennsylvania (Executive Summary). 10,000 Friends of Pennsylvania.
Wilson, E. H., Hurd, J. D., Civco, D. L., Prisloe, M. P., & Arnold, C. (2003). Development of a geospatial model to quantify, describe, and map urban growth. Remote Sensing of Environment, 86, 275-285.
[389] Frank, L. D., Andresen, M. A., & Schmid, T. L. (2004). Obesity relationships with community design, physical activity, and time spent in cars. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 27(2), 87-96.
[390] Ewing, R., Schmid, T., Killingsworth, R., Zlot, A., & Raudenbush, S. (2003). Relationship between urban sprawl and physical activity, obesity, and morbidity. American Journal of Health Promotion, 18(1), 47-57.
[391] Frumkin, H., Frank, L., & Jackson, R. J. (2004). Urban Sprawl and Public Health: Designing, Planning, and Building for Healthy Communities. Washington D.C.: Island Press.
[392] Back to Prosperity: A Competitive Agenda for Renewing Pennsylvania. (2003). Brookings Institution Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.brookings.edu/es/urban/publications/pa.htm.
[393] U.S. Department of Agriculture. National Resources Inventory 2002 Annual NRI (Vol. 2005). Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/NRI/intro.html.
[394] Ewing, R., Pendall, R., & Chen, D. Measuring Sprawl and Its Impact, Technical Report: Smart Growth America. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/sprawlindex/MeasuringSprawlTechnical.pdf.
[395] Farber, S., & Arugeta, J. (2001). State of the Environment in Allegheny County: Land, Water, and Air. Pittsburgh: Environmental Decision Support Program and University Center for Social and Urban Research, University of Pittsburgh. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.ucsur.pitt.edu.
[396] Wilson, E. H., Hurd, J. D., Civco, D. L., Prisloe, M. P., & Arnold, C. (2003). Development of a geospatial model to quantify, describe, and map urban growth. Remote Sensing of Environment, 86, 275-285.
[397] Molnar, B. E., Gortmaker, S. L., Bull, F. C., & Buka, S. L. (2004). Unsafe to play? Neighborhood disorder and lack of safety predict reduced physical activity among urban children and adolescents. American Journal of Health Promotion, 18(5), 378-386. Taylor, R., & Harrell, A. (1996). Physical Environment and Crime. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://ncjrs.aspensys.com:81/catalog.html.
[398] Kuo, F., & Sullivan, W. (2001). Environment and crime in the inner city: Does vegetation reduce crime? Environment and Behavior, 33(3), 343-367.
[399] Berrigan, D., & Troiano, R. P. (2002). The association between urban form and physical activity in U.S. adults. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 23(2 Suppl), 74-79.
[400] Owen, N., Humpel, N., Leslie, E., Bauman, A., & Sallis, J. F. (2004). Understanding environmental influences on walking; Review and research agenda. Ibid., 27(1), 67-76. Giles-Corti, B., & Donovan, R. J. (2002). Socioeconomic status differences in recreational physical activity levels and real and perceived access to a supportive physical environment. Preventive Medicine, 35(6), 601-611.
[401] Molnar, B. E., Gortmaker, S. L., Bull, F. C., & Buka, S. L. (2004). Unsafe to play? Neighborhood disorder and lack of safety predict reduced physical activity among urban children and adolescents. American Journal of Health Promotion, 18(5), 378-386.
[402] Brownson, R. C., Chang, J. J., Eyler, A. A., Ainsworth, B. E., Kirtland, K. A., Saelens, B. E., et al. (2004). Measuring the environment for friendliness toward physical activity: A comparison of the reliability of 3 questionnaires. American Journal of Public Health, 94(3), 473-483.
[403] Ibid, Wendel-Vos, G. C., Schuit, A. J., de Niet, R., Boshuizen, H. C., Saris, W. H., & Kromhout, D. (2004). Factors of the physical environment associated with walking and bicycling. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 36(4), 725-730.
[404] Kawachi, I., & Berkman, L. (2003). Introduction. In I. Kawachi & L. Berkman (Eds.), Neighborhoods and Health (pp. 1-19). New Yord: Oxford University Press.
[405] Cieslak, M. (2005). Interview with G. Ervin, 10,000 Friends of Pennsylvania, and S. Hwang, University of Pittsburgh Center for Social and Urban Research.
[406] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2000). Healthy People 2010: Leading Health Indicators. See http://www.healthypeople.gov/.
[407] Owen, N., Humpel, N., Leslie, E., Bauman, A., & Sallis, J. F. (2004). Understanding environmental influences on walking; Review and research agenda. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 27(1), 67-76.
[408] Ernst, M. (2004). Mean Streets 2004: How far have we come? Surface Transportation Policy Project. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www.pittsburghregion.org/public/cfm/library/reports/Final_Mean_Streets_2004_4.pdf.
[409] There are multiple sources of injury data which are summarized in a report from the Pennsylvania Department of Health available at http://www.dsf.health.state.pa.us/health/lib/health/injuryprevention/injury_data_resource.pdf
[410] Cieslak, M. (2005) Interview with H. Weiss, Center for Injury Research and Control at the University of Pittsburgh
[411] Karl, K., Kerns, T., Hettinger, T., & Pease, M. (2001). Geographic Information Systems Using CODES Linked Data. Retrieved March, 2005 from http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/CODES/FinalVe1.pdf.
[413] Morland, K., Wing, S., Diez Roux, A., & Poole, C. (2002). Neighborhood characteristics associated with the location of food stores and food service places. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 22(1), 23-29.
[414] Dalton, E., Ehrlich, S., Flores, M., Heberlein, E. and Niemeyer, M. (2003). Policy and Management Paper: Food Availability in Allegheny County, PA. (Graduate project.) Retrieved March, 2005 from http://journal.heinz.cmu.edu/archive/acrbtfls/fa_pap.pdf.
[415] Clean Air Task Force (2005). Diesel and health in America: The lingering threat. Accessed www.caft.us/publications/reports/Diesel_Health_in_America.pdf.
[417] Cieslak, M. (2005). Phone interview with C. Allison, Pennsylvania Department of Transportation.
[418] Cieslak, M. (2005). Interview with D. Hoffman, Bike Pittsburgh.
[420] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2003). Travel and Environmental Implications of School Siting. Retrieved March 2005 from http://www.epa.gov/livability/school_travel.htm.
[421] Cieslak, M. (2005). Phone conversation with C. Imbrogno, Southwestern Pennsylvania Commission.
[422] El-Askari, G., Freestone, J., Irizarry, C., Kraut, K., Mashiyama, S., Morgan, M., Walton, S. The Healthy Neighborhoods Project: A Local Health Department’s Role in Catalyzing Community Development. Health Education & Behavior, 1998. Vol. 25(2): 146-159
[423] For more information see http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/land/nri02/index.html.
[424] For more information see http://landsat.usgs.gov/ or references to Southwestern PA Commission as another local source.
[425] For further information or to purchase a subscription, see http://www.keyhole.com.
[426] To see a description of how this data was used to measure sprawl refer to the description earlier in the text under Residential Characteristics.
[427] To see a description of how this data was used to measure sprawl refer to the description earlier in the text under Residential Characteristics or to learn more see http://www.census.gov/econ/www/index.html#subnational.
[428] For most city maps see the Department of City Planning at http://www.city.pittsburgh.pa.us/cp/html/mapping.html or call 412-393-0157.
[429] For county GIS information, see http://www.county.allegheny.pa.us/dcs/gis.asp.
[430] For further information see http://www.census.gov/ or http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/SAFFHousing?_sse=on.
[431] For further information see http://factfinder.census.gov/jsp/saff/SAFFInfo.jsp?_pageId=gn7_maps.
[432] Contact the Citistats Coordinator in the Management and Budget Division of the Mayor’s Office
[433] For contact information see http://www.achd.net/comenv/index.php or http://www.achd.net/pr/pubs/pdf/ecb2004.pdf to read more about efforts to establish an on-line tracking system for Allegheny County.
[437] To learn more about this new project, see the descriptions in the Technological Tools or Built Environment sections. Because the system is in early stages of development, no website is currently available.
[439] For contact information, see http://www.city.pittsburgh.pa.us/BBI/.
[440] Greenlots recently formed. To learn more about the organization’s current projects see http://www.greenlots.org.
[441] For more information, see http://www.paconserve.org/.
[442] For contact information, see http://www.city.pittsburgh.pa.us/police/index.html.
[443] For contact information, see http://www.city.pittsburgh.pa.us/pw/index.html.
[444] Call the general customer service number found at http://www.duquesnelight.com/default.cfm.
[445] Port Authority of Allegheny County Engineering and Construction Division (2003). Bikestation Pre-Construction Report. See also http://www.ridegold.com/pdf/Public_Records_Policy.pdf for a description of the data release policy.
[446] For contact information, see http://www.friendsoftheriverfront.org/new_pages/.
[447] City of Pittsburgh Athletic Fields Analysis. Prepared by Pashek Associates with John J. Clark. Accessed online at http://www.city.pittsburgh.pa.us/cp/assets/field_analysis.pdf.
[448] Accessible at Carnegie Library Downtown Branch.
[449] For contact information, see http://www.achd.net/food/index.php.
[450] Contact Kristen Kurland at the H. John Heinz III School of Public Policy and Management regarding inquiries of GIS maps; see http://www.heinz.cmu.edu/ for contact information.
[451] See http://www.switchboard.com/bin/cgidir.dll?Mem=1355&PR=138&CSF=LocatorPostOffice&CID=18811 to search for post offices and then contact the local postmaster for questions regarding collection box locations.
[452] To access the online database see http://www.epa.gov/tri/.
[453] To access online directory see, http://www.dsf.health.state.pa.us/health/cwp/view.asp?a=188&Q=240852&healthRNavradC6298=|#.
[454] For information about available data sources see http://www.esri.com/data/index.html.
[455] For information about available data sources see http://www.spcregion.org/data.shtml.
[456] For access to online database, see http://www.dot7.state.pa.us/itms/default.asp
[457] See http://www.dot.state.pa.us/ and click on “traveler information,” or see http://www.traffic.com.
[458] See http://www.dot.state.pa.us/penndot/bureaus/bhste.nsf/frmCisad?OpenFrameSet&Frame=contents&Src=_45to6arjechnn8br2elp6aoblecnm4q3jehiisrjjconkirj6dt364j39edq6irj77t7n0pbe8pnn4r9685qn8rq6e9gmqpb4.
[459] To access the online database, see http://www-fars.nhtsa.dot.gov/.
[460] For more information, see http://www.dsf.health.state.pa.us/health/cwp/view.asp?a=170&q=237548&healthPNavCtr=|#.
[461] To report an accident, see http://www.ghostbike.org and click on “Forms.”
[462] For contact information, see http://www.bike-pgh.org/.
[463] See Economic Characteristics in U.S. Census Demographic Profiles for block group data or access county level data at http://transportation.org/ctpp/home/default.htm.
[464] See http://www.city.pittsburgh.pa.us/pghparkingauthority/html/pittsburgh_parking_authority.html for more information.
[465] Janssen, S., Solomon, G. and Schettler, T. (2002). Links between contaminants and disease conditions. Retrieved from http://www.protectingourhealth.org/corethemes/links/2004-0203spreadsheet.htm.